THINKER'S ALMANAC - October 22

What can a free mint given to you with your check at a restaurant teach you about influence and persuasion?

Subject:  Reciprocation - Kennedy’s Deal with Krushev

Event:  Cuban Missile Crisis, 1916

It seems ironic and regrettable that for many years and even today, the factor that “saved the world” -- the power of reciprocal exchange -- has been underrecognized and has been assigned instead to a factor -- unwillingness to compromise -- that might well have destroyed that world. -Robert B. Cialdini

On this day in 1962, President John F. Kennedy addressed the American people, informing them that the Soviet Union had shipped nuclear missiles to Cuba, where they were now aimed at the United States.  He further explained that he had ordered a naval blockade of Cuba and directed Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev to remove the missiles from Cuba.  For the next thirteen days Khrushchev and Kennedy stared each other down in a tense situation that threatened to turn the Cold War into full-fledged nuclear war that might destroy a third of the world’s population. Finally, Khrushchev backed down and agreed to return the missiles to the Soviet Union. 

 Image by WikiImages from PixabayImage by WikiImages from Pixabay

It turns out that there is more to this story than was initially reported at the time.  Recently declassified documents reveal that Khrushchev didn’t back down solely because he was intimidated by Kennedy; instead, his decision to remove the missiles from Cuba was contingent on a negotiated concession by Kennedy:  that the U.S. remove US Jupiter missiles from Turkey and Italy.

In his book Influence, The Psychology of Persuasion, Robert B. Cialdini uses the Cuban Missile Crisis as a classic example to illustrate the power of reciprocation -- a key rule of influence that says that when another person provides us with something, we feel obligated to return and repay the favor.  Long before Kennedy and Khrushev, the human species survived and thrived because people learned the value of sharing resources with one another. 

Historians see reciprocation in the relationship between Kennedy and Khrushev, but more importantly sociologists and anthropologists confirm that the rule of reciprocation is a basic norm of human culture.  Knowing how the rule works will help us understand how we are influenced by it and how we might use it to influence others.

The rule of reciprocation tells us that humans are very sensitive to the give-and-take interactions.  Whether or not we’re conscious of it, we keep track of what others give us and what we give them, such as favors, gifts, or money.  We are especially sensitive to being in debt to others.  Restaurant servers understand reciprocation; the one or two pieces of candy that you get with your bill is not a purely altruistic gesture; instead, servers know that by giving you a small “gift,” what they get from you, their tip, will be substantially larger.  This is because of the rule of reciprocation:  when given something, we feel obligated to reciprocate.

In one study conducted by psychologist Dennis Regan, he wanted to see how a small, unsolicited gift would impact his ability to sell people raffle tickets.  Half of the subjects received a can of Coca-Cola.  Then, after a brief time delay they were asked to purchase raffle tickets.  The other half of the subjects received no gift before being requested to purchase tickets.  Despite the fact that he never made any reference to the original gift, Regan documented that the people who were given a Coke purchased twice as many raffle tickets than those who did not.

In his Inaugural Address in 1961, John F. Kennedy proclaimed, “Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.”  Based on his understanding of the rule of reciprocation, he might have said, “ Ask not what someone else can do for you, ask first how you can do a favor for someone else.”

Recall, Retrieve, Recite, Ruminate, Reflect, Reason:  How did the raffle ticket study illustrate the concept of Reciprocation?

Challenge - Tools But Not Hardware:  Reciprocation is just one of the powerful tools of influence that Robert B. Cialdini has identified.  Do a bit of research on one of the remaining six tools (Liking, Social Proof, Authority, Scarcity, Commitment and Consistency, or Unity).  Define what the tool is and how it specifically works to influence others.

Sources:

1-Cialdini, Robert B. Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion, New and Expanded.  New York:  Harper Business, 2021.

THINKER'S ALMANAC - October 21

How did a mistakenly published obituary lead to the creation of the annual Nobel Prizes?

Subject: Invention - Nobel Prizes

Event: Birthday of Alfred Nobel, 1833

I intend to leave after my death a large fund for the promotion of the peace idea, but I am skeptical as to its results. -Alfred Nobel

On this day in 1833, Alfred Nobel was born in Stockholm, Sweden. When he was nine years old, he moved with his family to St. Petersburg, Russia, where his father worked as an engineer, manufacturing explosives.  In Russia, Nobel studied chemistry and became fluent in English, French, German, and Russian.  Later the family moved back to Sweden, and Alfred worked for his father in his factory experimenting with explosives.

Tragedy struck in 1864 when an explosion in the Nobel factory killed five people, including Alfred’s younger brother Emil. Resolved to invent a safer explosive, Nobel went to work, and in 1867, he patented his invention which he called “Nobel’s Safety Powder.”  The new explosive was indeed safer, combining nitroglycerin and an absorbent sand, but it needed a catchier name.  To solve this problem, Nobel turned to a Greek root for “power” and coined the word dynamite. Dynamite did, in fact, make the work of miners safer; however, its use in warfare also made killing more efficient.

Image by Florian Pircher from Pixabay

In 1888, a French newspaper mistakenly published an obituary of Alfred, stating, “The merchant of death is dead.” Although the reports of his death were greatly exaggerated, the obituary still caused Alfred to reflect on his legacy.  He immediately changed his will, setting aside his fortune to establish the Nobel Prizes, awarded each year in Sweden for outstanding achievements in physics, chemistry, medicine, literature, and for contributions towards peace.  A prize for economics was added in 1968 (1).

Recall, Retrieve, Recite, Ruminate, Reflect, Reason:  In terms of cause and effect, how did Alfred Nobel’s invention of dynamite lead to his decision to fund the Nobel Prizes?

Challenge:  Dynamite Inventions:  What would you argue is the greatest single invention of all time? What do you know about its inventor and how it was invented? Brainstorm a list of inventions.  Then, select the one that you think is deserving of being recognized for its genius. Write an explanation of why you think the invention is so special.  Include some details from research on its inventor and where, when, and how the invention came to be. 

ALSO ON THIS DAY:

-October 21, 1879:  After fourteen months of tests, Thomas Edison produces an incandescent electric lightbulb that lasts thirteen and a half hours.

-October 21, 1984:  On this date President Ronald Reagan employed a red herring against his Democratic opponent Walter Monday in their second presidential debate:  See THINKER’S ALMANAC - March 9.

Sources: 

1-Biography.com. Alfred Nobel Biography. 21 Aug. 2019.

2-Alfred, Randy. “Oct. 21, 1879: Edison Gets the Bright Light Right.” Wired 21. Oct. 2000.

THINKER'S ALMANAC - October 20

What was the secret creative ingredient that allowed Paul McCartney to compose The Beatles hit “Yesterday”?

Subject:  Creativity/Learning - Paul McCartney writes a hit

Event:  The Beatles receive a gold record for Yesterday, 1965

Please, don't wake me

No, don't shake me

Leave me where I am

I'm only sleeping

-The Beatles

On this day in 1965, The Beatles received a gold record for their song Yesterday.  In many ways the song is uncharacteristic of the typical music by the British rock group.  Yesterday marked the first time that The Beatles recorded a song featuring just one of the band’s members.  Only Paul McCarney recorded the song with his acoustic guitar, accompanied by a string quartet.  Not only is the song the most covered of all The Beatles’ songs, it is also one of the most covered songs of all time by any group or artist.

Even the song’s composition was atypical.  Paul awoke one morning with the song's complete melody running through his head.  He rolled out of bed, sat at his piano, found the chords, and began playing the song.  Because this wasn’t his typical method of writing songs, McCartney at first didn’t think he had written the song, thinking he must have just heard it somewhere.  But after playing it for several people, he realized it was an original.  

Because he didn’t have lyrics for the song, he simply called it “Scrambled Eggs.”  While on holiday in Portugal, Paul decided on the one-word title Yesterday and wrote the songs’ lyrics.  The song was recorded in June 1965 and released as a single in September of that year (1).

Another classic tale of creativity fueled by sleep is Dimitri Ivanovic Mendeleyev’s creation of the Periodic Table of the Elements.  The story goes that one night in 1869 the Russian chemist was contemplating how to organize the atoms discovered by science up to that time.  As he ruminated, he played solitaire but fell asleep before finishing his game.  When he woke up, he had in his mind a complete framework for each atom.  He then quickly wrote it down in the famous table format.

In his book Brain Rules, biologist John Medina presents evidence that sleep is not only essential for creativity endeavours, it is also vital to learning of any kind.  In one study, students were presented with a math lesson followed by a series of related math problems.  The researchers wanted to see how sleep would impact the students’ ability to identify a shortcut in solving the problems.  Half the students were brought back to work on math problems twelve hours after the initial lesson. Twenty percent of those students discovered the shortcut.  The second group was also brought back after twelve hour; however, eight of the twelve hours included sleep.  Remarkably, sixty percent of these students discovered the shortcut (2).

Recall, Retrieve, Recite, Ruminate, Reflect, Reason:  How did the math study reveal the impact of sleep on learning?

Challenge - Chief Nourisher of Life’s Feast - What is the best thing anyone has ever said about sleep?  Do a search for some quotations.  When you find one you like, write it down and explain why you like it.

ALSO ON THIS DAY:

October 20, 1968: Dick Fosbury set an Olympic record jumping 7 feet 4 ¼ inches at the Mexico City Games with his status quo busting new method of high jumping: See THINKER’S ALMANAC - March 8.

Sources:

1-McGuinness, Paul. “‘Yesterday’: The Story Behind The Beatles’ Song”

UDiscover Music 14 June 2021

2. Medina, John.  Brain Rules. Seattle, Wa: Pear Press, 2014: 49.

THINKER'S ALMANAC - October 19

How is a rider atop an elephant an excellent metaphor for the workings of the human mind? 

Subject:  The Human Mind - The Rider and the Elephant Metaphor

Event: Birthday of Jonathan David Haidt, 1963

To understand most important ideas in psychology, you need to understand how the mind is divided into parts that sometimes conflict.  We assume that there is one person in each body, but in some ways we are each more like a committee whose members have been thrown together to do a job, but who often find themselves working at cross purposes. -Jonathan Haidt

In his book Thinking Fast and Slow (2011), Daniel Kahneman explains that the human mind consists of two separate processing systems:  System 1 and System 2.  System 1 is the older system, processing automatically.  It is the emotional system and includes our instinctive, subconscious thinking processes.  If we see a stranger in the grocery store who is angry or frustrated because of a long checkout line, we can see the emotion in their facial expression.  It’s not exactly easy to articulate how we know the person is angry, but the System 1 processes allow us to instinctively read emotion via facial expressions. 

Image by Sasin Tipchai from Pixabay

System 2, in contrast, is the newer processing system.  It is the reasoning, logical system and includes our conscious thinking processes.  When we are working on a complex math problem, for example, System 2 provides the processing power to consciously follow a reasoned sequence that leads to a solution.

In his 2006 book The Happiness Hypothesis, social psychologist Jonathan Haidt -- who was born on this day in 1963 -- created a brilliant metaphor that helps us better understand the interaction of System 1 and System 2:  the rider and the elephant.

Haidt asks his reader to picture System 1 as an enormous elephant and System 2 as a lone rider perched atop the elephant.  The Rider - System 2 - is holding the reins and can attempt to guide or direct the elephant; however, because the elephant has a mind of its own - the older and powerful System 1 - the rider is not always able to tame or direct the beast he is attempting to control.  

As Haidt describes the complex relationship between the rider and the elephant as follows:

We are like a rider on top of a gigantic elephant. We can steer the elephant, and if he's not busy, he'll go where we want, but if he has other desires, he'll often go where he wants. How can one control the elephant? In part, this comes with maturity. In part, this comes with the development of your frontal cortex, so the frontal areas of the brain are especially involved in self-control, in suppressing your initial instinct to act.

Haidt’s metaphor is so effective because it helps us visualize the unequal interactions of our two thinking systems.  Often, we mistakenly assume that human reason will rule over emotion.  The rider and the elephant, however, reminds us that the rider is more of an advisor than a boss.  The rider can direct the elephant, providing conscious, reasoned thought and a vision of the future, but the elephant has a will and intelligence of its own that is guided by gut feelings, intuition, and emotions.  Long before Haidt or Kahneman were born, the Scottish philosopher David Hume, summed it all up clearly and concisely in a single sentence:  “Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them” (1).

Recall, Retrieve, Recite, Ruminate, Reflect, Reason:  How does the rider and the elephant metaphor sum up and illustrate the mind’s two thinking systems?

Challenge - Metaphorically Thinking:  Metaphors and analogies help us to better understand and to better visualize new ideas by comparing them to what we already know.  Do some research on other metaphors or analogies that have been employed to help understand and illustrate the complex workings of the human mind.  Pick the one you like the best, and explain why you think it is effective.

Sources:

1-Haidt, Jonathan.  The Happiness Hypothesis.  New York:  Basic Books, 2006.

THINKER'S ALMANAC - October 18

How can four letters of the alphabet help you to understand yourself and others better?

 

Subject: Personality - Myers Briggs 

Event: Birthday of Isabel Briggs Myers, 1897

Personality is the supreme realization of the innate idiosyncrasy of a living being. It is an act of high courage flung in the face of life, the absolute affirmation of all that constitutes the individual, the most successful adaptation to the universal conditions of existence coupled with the greatest possible freedom for self-determination. -Carl Jung

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a questionnaire that helps people understand their psychological preferences and identify distinct characteristics of their personalities.  Since it was first developed in 1944, the MBTI has become one of the most popular personality assessments.  Its questionnaire is published in 29 different languages in 115 countries.  

Image by Elisa from Pixabay

The MBTI was created by the mother-daughter team of Katharine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers, who was born on this day in 1897.  Despite the fact that neither had formal psychological training, both were fascinated by the topic of personality.  Katharine first gained notoriety as a writer when she wrote a parenting column in the 1920s; her primary subject was the details of how she was raising and educating her daughter Isabel.  When Isabel left home for college, Katharine became depressed and began reading the works of Carl Jung.  Jung’s theory of psychological types captivated Katharine, and she adapted his work to develop her own method of categorizing personality types.  

The key to the success of MBTI, however, came later when Katharine collaborated with Isabel to develop a questionnaire with 117 questions that would help people identify the individual indicators of their personality.  Katharine sold her system to Edward N. Hay in 1944, and the timing could not have been better.  The post-World War II jobs boom made the MBTI an easy instrument to sell as businesses looked for effective ways to fill jobs with workers who were the right fit.

The MBTI is organized around four dichotomies of personality preferences:

I. Energy - How do you acquire energy, and are you more outwardly or more inwardly focused?  

-Extrovert (Energized by spending time with people:  social, active, expressive, outspoken)

-Introvert (Energized by spending time alone or in a small group: independent, reserved, thoughtful)

II. Information - How do you take in information about your world? 

-Sensing (Interested in empirical, concrete information, what can be directly perceived by the five senses.  Hands-on, realistic, practical, sequential, detail-oriented).

-Intuition (Interested in abstract thinking, such as concepts or theories:  future and big picture oriented, idealistic, creative)

III. Decision Making - How do you prefer to make decisions?  

-Thinking (Make decisions based on reason and logic:  objective, rational)

-Feeling (Make decisions with the heart: subjective, compassionate, seek harmony)

IV. Order/Organization - How do you prefer to get things done and to live your life? 

-Judging (Appreciate order, structure, and planning.  Like rules and following a process.

-Perceiving (Appreciate flexibility and spontaneity. Like to improvise and embrace surprises and novelty) (1)

Recall, Retrieve, Recite, Ruminate, Reflect, Reason:  What are the differences between the following dichotomies in the MBTI:  extrovert/introvert, sensing/intuition, thinking/feeling, judging/perceiving?

Challenge - Your Four: For each of the four dichotomies, assess your own personality.  Which do you think sums you up the best?

Extrovert (E) or Introvert (I), 

Sensing (S) or Intuition (N), 

Thinking (T) or Feeling (F), 

Judging (J) or Perceiving (P)

Once you have determined your four preferences, do some research on your four letter combination (There are sixteen different possible combinations.  Explain whether or not the descriptions you find about your four letter combination fit what you know about your own personality.

Sources:

1-https://forge.medium.com/the-capitalist-origins-of-the-myers-briggs-personality-test-309187757d4e

THINKER'S ALMANAC - October 17

How can looking at a four-year-old’s attitude toward jigsaw puzzles help us better understand our motivation to learn?

Subject:  Mindset  - Jigsaw Puzzle Study

Birthday of Carol Dweck, 1946

Two men look out through the same bars; One sees the mud, and one the stars. -Frederick Langridge

Today is the birthday of Stanford professor Carol Dweck.  Born in 1946, Dweck’s work has been highly influential in helping us understand human motivation.  Her 2006 book Mindset: The New Psychology of Success provides insights into the nature of human intelligence and how our beliefs, both conscious and unconscious, can influence our attitudes and our effort.

Dweck’s work describes two mindsets:  the fixed mindset and the growth mindset.  A person with a fixed mindset believes that intelligence, talent, and character are static, and they cannot be changed.  A person with a growth mindset, however, believes that intelligence, talent, and character are fluid, and that they can be changed through hard work, experience, and effort.

Image by Annalisa I. from Pixabay

The two mindsets are most prominent when we look at students’ attitudes toward learning.  In one of Dweck’s studies, she gave four-year-olds a puzzle to complete.  Once they completed the puzzle, each child was then offered one of two options:  one, redo an easy jigsaw puzzle or two, try a harder puzzle.  The students who believed that their intelligence and talents were fixed chose the safe option of redoing an easy puzzle; in contrast, those who believed that they could become smarter through effort, chose to challenge themselves.

Older students might assess their own mindsets by thinking about the following scenarios.  

Imagine you’re in class.  The teacher asks a question.  In thinking about the question, you have an answer, but you're not certain it is right.  Would you raise your hand?  A student with a fixed mindset most likely would not raise her hand, for fear of giving the wrong answer.  The student with a fixed mindset sees a wrong answer as a threat to her ego since she sees being wrong as a final judgment on her lack of intelligence.  A student with a growth mindset, however, would most likely raise her hand, seeing it as a win-win scenario and as an opportunity to check her understanding of her learning.  If she is right, she will confirm what she knows, and if she is wrong, she will have an opportunity to correct her misunderstanding.

Imagine a second scenario.  You are in class the day after completing a test.  You did not do very well.  The teacher then offers you a choice.  One, you can look at the tests of students who did worse than you did, or two, you can look at the tests of students who scored higher than you did.  Which would you choose?  In this scenario, students with a fixed mindset typically choose to look at the tests of students who did worse than they did since this helps them feel better about themselves.  Students with a growth mindset, however, chose to look at the tests of those who scored higher than they did since this offers an opportunity to see what they got wrong and to correct their mistakes.

At the core of each of the two mindsets is a distinctly different attitude toward failure and learning.  For the person with a fixed mindset failure is to be feared.  Since they see intelligence as fixed, any failure is a challenge to their self-esteem.  As a result, they frequently will not even attempt new challenges for fear that it might threaten their self image as a smart person.  For the person with a growth mindset, failure is not something to fear; instead, it is an opportunity to identify weaknesses and to focus on specific areas that can be improved with effort and practice. Instead of a final judgment that they are not smart, people with a growth mindset see failure as an opportunity to get smarter.

Recall, Retrieve, Recite, Ruminate, Reflect, Reason:  How did Dweck’s jigsaw puzzle experiments illustrate the difference between the fixed and growth mindset?

Challenge - Fix Your Mindset and Grow:  Write a public service announcement for elementary ages students that explains the fixed and growth mindsets.  Try to persuade the audience that they should embrace the growth mindset both in school and in life.

Sources:

1-Dweck, Carol S. Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York:  Ballantine Books, 2006