THINKER'S ALMANAC: October 31

What insights about human nature were revealed by a study of Halloween trick-or-treaters?

Subject:  Human Nature - Candy Study

Event:  Halloween

Behavior is the mirror in which everyone shows their image. -Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Most social science experiments are conducted in university laboratories, but one classic study from the 1970s was conducted in a suburban neighborhood.

The purpose of the study was to gain some insight into human nature, specifically the honesty of trick-or-treaters as they collected candy on Halloween night.

Image by Jill Wellington from Pixabay

Each time a child came to the door, a research assistant greeted them, pointed out a candy bowl sitting on a table, and instructed the child to help themselves to a single piece of candy.   The researcher then told the child that she had a chore to complete and left the room.  Unbeknownst to the trick-or-treaters, another researcher was watching through a small peephole and recording which children followed directions and which children let greed overtake them.  The results from eighteen different households on Halloween night revealed that 33.7% of children took more than a single piece of candy.

The researchers then added one new wrinkle to the experiment:  a mirror.  The mirror was strategically placed next to the candy bowl so that any child approaching the bowl would see his or her reflection.  With the mirror present, candy theft was reduced to only 8.8 percent (1).

In another variation of the study, research assistants asked half the children their names before telling the kids to take one candy and then leaving them alone in the room.  The other half of the kids were not asked their names.  As you might guess, the kids who remained anonymous took more candy than those who volunteered their names.

One conclusion we might make from these studies is that if we want to influence people’s behavior, we should make them identifiable, helping them to both literally and figuratively reflect on what they are doing (2).

For another Halloween social science study involving trick-or-treaters, see Thinker’s Almanac - April 24

Recall, Retrieve, Recite, Ruminate, Reflect, Reason:   How did the candy experiment illustrate the concept of deindividuation?

Challenge - Who Are You: Halloween is a great day to reflect on who we truly are.  Whether or not we literally put on a mask, we are always dealing with issues of identity.  Do some research on quotations about “identity.”  When you find one that gives you true insight, write it down and explain why it is meaningful to you.

Sources:

1-Goldstein, Noah J., Steve J. Martin, and Robert B. Cialdini.  Yes:  50 Scientifically Proven Ways to Be Persuasive. New York:  Free Press, 2008.

2-Waxman, Olivia B. “What Trick-or-Treating Teaches Us About Human Nature.” Time magazine 28 Oct. 2015.

THINKER'S ALMANAC - October 30

How might you argue that the most important of all your years of formal education is kindergarten?

Subject:  Personal Philosophy - Credo

Event:  All I Really Need to Know I Learned in Kindergarten, 1989.

Live by this credo: have a little laugh at life and look around you for happiness instead of sadness. Laughter has always brought me out of unhappy situations. -Red Skelton

On this day in 1989, Robert Fulghum published his book All I Really Need to Know I Learned in Kindergarten.  The book, which stayed on the New York Times bestseller list for almost two years, is a collection of short essays, subtitled “Uncommon Thoughts on Common Things.”

Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay

Fulghum grew up in Waco, Texas, and before he began writing full time, he was a Unitarian minister and an art and philosophy teacher.

The first essay in Fulghum’s book, called “Credo,” explains the origin of his book’s title.  Fulghum recalls that each spring throughout his life he would sit down and write a personal credo, a list of statements of personal belief.  This list evolved over the years with statements that were sometimes comical, sometimes bland, sometimes cynical, and sometimes over-complicated.  The final version of his credo came to him, however, when he realized that true meaning in life did not need to be complicated.  In fact, he already knew what he needed to know; he had learned it a long time ago in kindergarten. The basic rules he learned like “Share everything,” “Play fair,” and “Clear up your own mess” served him throughout life (1).

All I Really Need to Know I Learned in Kindergarten has spawned numerous imitations, spinoffs, and parodies based on television shows, movies, books, etc.  These imitations adopt Fulghum’s title and list as their template, beginning with “All I Really Need to Know I Learned From ______,” followed by a list of principles based on the source of inspiration.

For example:

All I Really Need to Know I Learned from Watching Star Trek

All I Really Need to Know I Learned from My Dog

All I Really Need to Know I Learned in Fairy Tales

A further adaptation narrows the learning a bit to a single specific area, as in:

All I Really Need to Know about ___________ I Learned from ___________

One example of this kind of spinoff is a book, published in 2014 by Paul Oyer, Everything I Ever Needed to Know about Economics I Learned from Online Dating.

Recall, Retrieve, Recite, Ruminate, Reflect, Reason:  What are some possible credos you might take from two separate sources that have influenced you?

Challenge:  Create Your Credo:  How would you finish the following titles, and what principles would you include in your personal credo?  “All I Really Need to Know I Learned in/from ______.”  And “All I Really Need to Know about ___________ I Learned in/from ___________.”

Create your own spin-off of Fulghum’s credo.  Brainstorm some ideas based on books, movies, television shows, the internet, or some other aspect of life that you know well.  Once you have selected a single focus, generate a list of principles that spring from your selected area.  Your list may contain serious insights or humorous insights.  (Common Core Writing 2 – Expository)

ALSO ON THIS DAY:

October 30, 1938:  Listeners throughout the U.S. mistake a radio production of H.G. Wells’ novel The War of the Worlds for an actual alien invasion.

Sources:

1-Fulghum, Robert. All I Really Need to Know I Learned in Kindergarten. New York:  Ballantine Books, 1989.

THINKER'S ALMANAC - October 29

How did Malcolm X experience the feeling of being truly free while locked up in a prison cell? 

Subject:  Literacy Narrative - Malcolm X’s Prison Studies

Event:  The Autobiography of Malcolm X published, 1965

To learn to read is to light a fire; every syllable that is spelled out is a spark. -Victor Hugo

Black nationalist leader Malcolm X was born on this day in 1925 in Omaha, Nebraska. Born Malcolm Little, he considered Little his slave name, so he replaced it with an X to represent the lost name of his African tribal ancestors.

When he was 21 years old, Malcolm was convicted of burglary and received a ten-year sentence.  In prison, Malcolm transformed his life through voracious reading and study. He stopped using drugs and became a member of the Nation of Islam.  After his early-release from prison in 1952, Malcolm became a spokesman for the Nation of Islam. Like Martin Luther King’s quest for civil rights, Malcolm advocated for racial equality.  However, unlike King’s tactics of nonviolent resistance, Malcolm promoted a more militant approach, saying “There’s no such thing as a nonviolent revolution.” Shortly before he died, Malcolm left the Nation of Islam.  While preparing to give a speech in New York, he was assassinated on February 21, 1965.

Image by Steve Buissinne from Pixabay

In his autobiography, Malcolm recounts the events that led to his education behind bars.  With time on his hands, he attempted to read but due to his limited vocabulary, he could comprehend few of the words on the page.  To remedy this he decided to study a dictionary. Beginning with the letter A, he read and copied by hand page after page and soon discovered that he was learning more than just vocabulary:  “With every succeeding page, I also learned of people and places and events from history. Actually the dictionary is like a miniature encyclopedia.”

As his knowledge base and vocabulary grew, Malcolm turned to other books beside the dictionary, reading in every free moment during the day, and well into the night by a small corridor light outside his jail cell.

Talking about his prison studies, Malcolm says:  

I never have been so truly free in my life. . . . the ability to read awoke inside me some long dormant craving to be mentally alive . . . . My homemade education gave me, with every additional book that I read, a little bit more sensitivity to the deafness, dumbness, and blindness that was afflicting the black race in America.

Recall, Retrieve, Recite, Ruminate, Reflect, Reason:  Research some quotations on the topic of literacy.  Find two that you like; then, compare and contrast the two writer’s attitudes about the importance of literacy.

Challenge - Your Love Letter to Literacy:  What are some memorable experiences that would be in your autobiography regarding your acquisition of literacy?  What do you remember about learning to read, about learning to write, and about being influenced by books?  Imagine you are writing your autobiography and that it must include a literacy narrative, that is a story of your experiences with learning to read and write.  Write about a specific incident from your life that is related to books, reading, or writing.  Also consider the people who have influenced your experiences with literacy. 

ALSO ON THIS DAY:

October 29, 1969:  On this day a graduate student at UCLA named Charley Kline established, via telephone, a connection between the UCLA computer lab and the computer lab at Stanford. The message Kline sent that day was the first sent over an Internet connection.  Foreshadowing connection problems to come, the first message that Kline attempted was a single word: “login.” Only the first two letters “L” and “O” were received before the connection crashed.

Sources:

1-The Autobiography of Malcolm X 1965

THINKER'S ALMANAC - October 28

How is it that religion is always right and science is always wrong?

Subject: Science - Shaw Toasts Einstein

Event: George Bernard Shaw salute to his contemporary, 1930

Few people think more than two or three times a year; I have made an international reputation for myself by thinking once or twice a week. -George Bernard Shaw

On this day in 1930, British playwright George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) spoke at a dinner honoring Albert Einstein (1879-1955).  Shaw presented a short speech saluting the scientist for his work, calling Einstein “the greatest of our contemporaries.”

Image by Jackie Ramirez from Pixabay

Shaw began his speech by identifying eight great men of history whom he called “makers of universes.” These men were Pythagoras, Ptolemy, Kepler, Copernicus, Aristotle, Galileo, Newton, and Einstein — all great men of science, who unlike the “makers of empires” did not have hands “stained with the blood of their fellow men.”  Shaw continued by comparing Isaac Newton (1643-1727) and Einstein, explaining how Einstein challenged Newton’s rectilinear view of the universe, replacing this view with his curvilinear universe.  The Englishman Newton presented a model for the universe that stood for 300 years.  In 1916, at the age of 26, Einstein gave the world a new model, his theory of general relativity.

Shaw continued by celebrating science and contrasting it with religion.  In doing this, he presents a paradox:

Religion is always right.  Religion protects us against that great problem which we all must face.  Science is always wrong; it is the very artifice of men.  Science can never solve one problem without raising ten more problems (1).

Recall, Retrieve, Recite, Ruminate, Reflect, Reason: What contrast did George Bernard Shaw make between science and religion?

Challenge - A Tribute and a Tip of the Hat:  When we speak of “contemporaries” we are talking about people who lived at the same time.  For example, George Bernard Shaw and Einstein were contemporaries; Einstein and Newton were not.  What person living today would you argue is the most influential?  Who would you label as the greatest of our contemporaries?  Brainstorm some names of great people who are still living.  Identify the one you would honor, and like Shaw, write your short tribute, making your case for the person as the most influential person alive.  For some help in your research, read one of Time magazine’s “The 100 Most Influential People” editions.  This annual issue features the most influential living people with tributes written by their contemporaries.

Sources:

1-Safire, William.  Lend Me Your Ears:  Great Speeches in History.  New York:  W. W. Norton & Company, 1997: 206-8.

THINKER'S ALMANAC - October 27

How can restaurant workers teach us to be more creative and to procrastinate less?

Subject:  Zeigarnik Effect - unfinished tasks more memorable

Event:  Birthday of Bluma Wulfovna Zeigarnik, 1901

One day, while sitting in a cafe with her mentor, Bluma Zeigarnik -- who was born on this day in 1901 -- had an epiphany that provides insight into human thinking and memory.  

At the time Zeigarnik was studying psychology at the University of Berlin under the direction of professor Kurt Lewin.  As the two sat drinking coffee, Lewin commented that the waiters in the cafe appeared to remember the orders of customers who had not yet paid much better than the orders of customers who had paid their tab.  The seemingly offhand comment got Zeigarnik thinking about how our thinking about completed tasks differs from our thinking about uncompleted tasks.

Image by Peggy und Marco Lachmann-Anke from Pixabay

In a study that she completed in 1927, Zeigarnik gave 138 children a variety of tasks, such as puzzles, math problems, and clay modeling.  For half of the tasks, she interrupted the children before they completed their assignment.  Then, one hour after working on the task, she assessed the students’ recall of what tasks they had been given.  The results revealed the wisdom of Professor Lewin’s comment about the waiters:  One hundred and ten of the children remembered more of the interrupted tasks than those they had completed.  In contrast, only seventeen were able to recall the completed tasks better; only eleven remembered both the completed and uncompleted tasks.

The Zeigarnik effect explains why we are often preoccupied by thoughts about a project or other unfinished task.  An incomplete task creates cognitive tension which in turn generates more mental effort.  In contrast, a completed task allows us to release the cognitive tension and let go of being preoccupied by it.

Television shows capitalize on the Zeigarnik effect to keep us watching:  writers “end” each episode with some unresolved conflict that keeps us hanging and wanting to begin the next episode.  Likewise, movie trailers are carefully crafted to get us hooked; this is accomplished by presenting some of the movie’s key dramatic moments with well timed interruptions.

Understanding how the Zeigarnik effect works can also provide us with new insights about how we can strategically use interruptions for our own benefit.  For example, if you are working on some kind of creative problem solving, don’t be afraid to take a break or set your task aside for a day or two.  Because your task is incomplete, you can count on the Zeigarnik effect to keep you engaged, either consciously or unconsciously.  You might even have wake up at 3:00 AM with an epiphany.  Don’t view the act of setting a task aside as a negative; instead, see it as capitalizing on what psychologist Richard E. Nisbett calls “the free labor of the unconscious mind.” 

Furthermore, the Zeigarnik effect is a great method for fighting procrastination.  The next time you are faced with a task that you are tempted to put off, don’t worry about having to complete it; instead, just spend five or ten minutes getting started.  Having begun the task, you will be able to take advantage of the Zeigarnik effect to provide you with the necessary momentum and insight to finish it later.

Recall, Retrieve, Recite, Ruminate, Reflect, Reason:  What is the Zeigarnik Effect, and how did the 1927 study with children test its validity?

Challenge - Unfinished Is Underrated:  Often we praise the act of getting things done, but the Zeigarnik effect can teach us the advantages of leaving tasks unfinished.  Write a short public service announcement, explaining why leaving some tasks unfinished might actually be a good thing.

Sources: 

1-Goldberg, Philip.  The Babinski Reflex.  Tarcher, 1990.

Discovery of the Zeigarnik Effect

THINKER'S ALMANAC - October 26

How does the prisoners’ dilemma help us understand doping in sports?  

Subject: Prisoners’ Dilemma - Lance Armstrong

Event:  Wired publishes article on doping, 2012

The virtues are lost in self-interest as rivers are lost in the sea. -Franklin D. Roosevelt

The prisoners’ dilemma is a classic thought experiment that comes out of the field of game theory.  Although it is an artificial scenario, it provides interesting insights into important aspects of human thinking and behavior, such as rational decision making, trust, self-interest, and cooperation.

Consider the following scenario:  

Two criminals are arrested and each is placed in a separate jail cell to make sure that they do not communicate.  Although the prosecutor does have evidence that will convict both men of an offense that will result in a one year jail sentence, he suspects that both have committed a major crime -- one that would yield a harsher sentence of 10 years in prison.  His hope is that he can get one of the prisoners to flip and provide evidence that will implicate his partner in crime.  Based on this fact, the prosecutor individually offers both prisoners a deal:  If both prisoners remain silent, each will receive a sentence of one year.  If both spill the beans, each prisoner will receive a two year sentence.  If, however, one betrays his partner, while the other remains silent, the cooperating prisoner will go free while the silent prisoner will receive a ten-year sentence.

Image by Marcello Rabozzi from Pixabay

Given this scenario, what would you do if you were one of the prisoners?  How would you resolve the dilemma?  Remember, you cannot speak with your partner in crime before you make your decision.  Would you trust your partner to remain silent and get a smaller sentence, or would you betray him, knowing that this is the only way to get off without a sentence?

On this day in 2012 an article was published in Wired explaining how the prisoners’ dilemma is very much a real world scenario in the world of competitive sports.  The specific sport being referred to was professional bicycle racing and the specific dilemma was that of whether or not to use performance-enhancing drugs.

The author of the article, Bruce Schneier, frames the doping dilemma as follows:  

If Bob doesn’t take any drugs, then it will be in my best interest to take them. They will give me a performance edge against Bob.  I have a better chance of winning.  Similarly, if Bob takes drugs, it’s also in my interest to agree to take them.  At least that way Bob won’t have an advantage over me.  So even though I have no control over what Bob chooses to do, taking drugs gives me the better outcome, regardless of his action. (1)

Given this scenario, it is easy to see why competitors like Lance Armstrong are tempted to stay competitive by doping.

In a study published in The Economic Journal in 1982, economists devised a money-based version of the prisoner’s dilemma. Two players were given the opportunity to earn money based on the following rules:

-If both players cooperate with each other, each player earns $10.

-If one player does not cooperate (known as defecting), but the other does, the cooperating player receives nothing and the defector receives $15.

-If both players defect, each receives $5.

What this study revealed was that pairs of players who played the game multiple times with each other cooperated more. This fact shows how the establishment of a relationship mitigates defecting.  It also shows the importance of how an established reputation impacts relationships (2).

Recall, Retrieve, Recite, Ruminate, Reflect, Reason:  What are the three possible scenarios (along with penalties) in the Prisoners’ Dilemma?

Challenge - Dollars and Dilemmas:  Consider a modified version of the prisoners’ dilemma called “Split or Steal.”  You present two strangers with an opportunity to win up to $20 based on the following rules.

Each must independently decide to either split the money with the stranger sitting across the table from them or to steal the money.

-If both players chose to split the money, they both earn $10.

-If one chooses to split the money but the other decides to steal, the stealing player gets all the money.

-If both players choose to steal, neither player gets any money.

Based on what you know about human nature, what do you think most people would do?  Would most people act out of self interest, or do you think people default to cooperation even when working with strangers?

Sources:

1-Schneier, Bruce. “Lance Armstrong and the Prisoners’ Dilemma of Doping in Professional Sports.”  Wired 26 Oct. 2012.

2-Anderoni, J., & Miller, J. H. (1982). Rational cooperation in the finitely repeated prisoner’s dilemma: Experimental evidence. The Economic Journal, 103(418), 570-585.